Today we should remember those Muslims who fought hard to save and protect the Ottoman Sultan in March 1915. Just a few months before my very own grandfather was born, thousands of miles away there was a battle on famous straight separating Europe and Asia in an area known as Çanakkale.

We are going to spend this time remembering them. Asking that Allah Almighty accept their noble efforts to defend the Khalifa of Islam and reward them accordingly.

I have an account of our grandshaykh Maulana Shaykh Nazim mentioning the time of fighting in Çanakkale saying,

“Our grandshaykh once related to me an incident from the First World War, when he was in the Dardanelles fighting for the Ottoman Khalifa. An Armenian sergant who was employed in the service of the Ottoman Empire, addressed a fellow sergeant, a Muslim saying: “Are you Muslim?” “Of course I am,” he answered. “Is it enough to declare that you are Muslim? I can also say that. Now, is there any difference between you and me?” The Muslim sergeant said, “I believe in the unity of God, in His prophets, His books, His angels, the Judgement Day and the rule of destiny.” The Armenian sergeant replied: “I may state my belief in all that you have stated. Now, what is the difference between us?”

Our grandshaykh used to comment about the difficulties between Armenian people and Muslims, saying what a shame it was and what a tragic turn of events, caused by the actions of evil men. Chrisitians were living with Muslims side by side, and they knew Islam as we know it, only that they were keeping their faith through Christianity.

Then our grandshaykh came and said to the Armenian sergeant: “Oh my friend, are you sincerely seeking an answer to your question? If so, then I may explain the difference between lip service and reality. When a person states his belief in God, His prophets, His revelations, His angels, the Judgement Day and destiny with real sincerity of heart, nothing will block the penetration of his vision to the heart of all things. If he looks down at earth he will not be prevented from seeing what lies beneath it. If he looks up at the heavens, the distance should not hinder him from seeing the seven heavens. He who sees with the light of faith should, when he turns to the East, see all the way to the Far East, and likewise in any direction. When he turns toward Mecca in his prayers he should see the house of God before his very eyes. Then the Armenian sergeant said: “Yes, that is the faith I am seeking,” and he kissed Grandshaykh’s hands, and completed his faith by adding sincere intention to his verbal affirmation of faith. If a person is granted real faith – neither distance nor darkness nor huge mountains can block his view – his light penetrates.”

The Torture of the Beloved

The torture of the beloved is no punishment

at all

Thank God for the faithfulness of your cruelty

There are many beloveds with cypress-bodies,

witch-eyes, and trouble-making brows

But not one of them has been so enticing

as you!

If those thirst for the wine of you rubied lips

gave one thousand lives

One thousand lives for just the dregs-

it would be cheap!

No matter how much I am seperated from you,

no matter how far

Your image remains constant within my soul

Oh my beloved, why do you withhold our union?

It does not befit you to torment your slave

this way!

Do a favor for the lovers, bring joy and captivate

their hearts

One must be faithful, for we know beauty

does not last

From my heart, I love you dearly,

more than life itself

Believe me, God knows there is no error in what I say

In this poem entitled, The Torture of the beloved, Ahmed-i Da’i makes mention of “many beloveds” when he writes, “There are many beloveds with cypress-bodies, witch-eyes,”. Ahmed-i Da’i appears to be referring to an allure an attraction of perhaps, unexplainable magnetism yet describing this attraction as having “trouble-making brows”. The scholars have commented on this phrase writing,

“This introduces the notion of fitne, which involves disturbing the peace and harmony of the community by doing something (or having a quality) that causes trouble, unrest, riot, or misbehavior. The beloved causes such trouble in innumerable ways.” (Andrews; Black; Kapakli, 2006)

There is little known about the poet Ahmed-i Da’i (d. ca. 1500), however, scholars have said he was born “during the latter part of the fourteenth century”, in the Anatolian Turkish Beylik named Germiyan. Germiyan was established by the Oghuz Turkish Clans and it is likely that Ahmed-i Da’i was from one of these clans. Ahmed-i Da’i was well known in the court of Kütahya, the region’s center for the arts and cultural activities. 

After the invasion of Timur into Anatolia, Ahmed-i Da’i sought refuge and patronage in the court of the Ottoman Sultans. He was accepted into the court of Sultan Suleyman I and Sultan Mehmed and later became the private tutor to the young Prince Murad II. Ahmed-i Da’i was loyal to the Ottoman Sultans and dedicated many of his works to Ottoman officials. Scholars have written that,

“Like many premodern intellectuals*, Ahmed-i Da’i was a master of many fields of knowledge from law to medicine, to literature and linguistics, to history and natural sciences. He wrote at least seventeen major works that we know of and collections of poetry in both Turkish and Persian. In addition he is thought to have been an excellent calligrapher… He is said to be buried in Bursa, the first Ottoman capital, however, his grave-site is not known.” (Andrews; Black; Kapakli, 2006) [*Emphasis mine]

There are a number of views expressed by European travel writers on the Ottomans and the Ottoman territories.  For example, a 16th century travel writer named Peter Gyllius, often cited by Edward Gibbon and other European historians of the late 18th and 19th centuries, is critical and negative toward the Ottoman capital of Istanbul. Today scholars have recognized him as, ‘a traveler who avoided looking at the Ottoman capital while spending a considerable amount of time in it’.

Edward Gibbon refers to Gyllius’ writings on Istanbul and the various sites he witnessed saying,

“From these wonders, which lived only in memory or belief, he distinguishes, however, the porphyry pillar, the column and colossus of Justinian, and the church, more especially the dome, of St. Sophia; the best conclusion, since it could not be described according to its merits, and after it no other object could deserve to be mentioned.” (Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire)

These writings have been accepted by Western scholars with little analysis or criticism. However, a number of historians today have given a deeper analysis to this work. And as a result an increasing number of Western scholars and historians are looking to non-European travel writers for reliable accounts of Ottoman history. References like famed 17th century travel writer Evliya Çelebi, an Ottoman travel writer who documented the life, lifestyle and culture of the 17th century Ottoman Empire. Suraiya Faroqhi, Professor of Ottoman Studies at Ludwig Maximilians University in Munich writes,

“French, English, Italian or German travellers of that period generally expected a major city to possess buildings several stories high. In part this was probably due to the Roman traditions they had all imbibed; in the imperial period, Rome contained numerous plots of land bordered by streets (insulae) covered over with residential construction of six to seven storeys. Frequently, the wealthier inhabitants lived on the first floor, while the upper stories were occupied by the poor; a comparable arrangement also existed in some parts of eighteenth century-Paris. Moreover, in the core of the city, business and residence were closely intertwined, with shops occupying the ground floor and residences the remainder of the building. On a practical level, this arrangement probably had something to do with the fact that until the middle of the nineteenth century, most European cities were still surrounded by walls. Outer suburbs existed, but wholesale building in the unwalled areas was often forbidden for defensive reasons. High densities on a small built-up area were the outcome, and typical French or English visitor to an Ottoman twon would be on the lookout for evidence of similar crowding (compare Braudel, 1979, vol. I, pp. 432ff).”

In contrast Faroqhi discusses the classic Ottoman urban image noting,

“Ottoman towns were however arranged according to different considerations. Most of them possessed a citadel which might contain a number of urban quarters. But at least in Anatolia, the commercial district normally lay outside the citadel. Markets might be located in an undefended lower town, probably because most urban sites were remote from endangered frontiers. But even when a city wall might have seemed advisable for security reasons, Ottoman townsmen – or the central administration for that matter – rarely decided to defend the entire built-up area in this fashion. Ankara constitutes one of the few, exceptional instances in which a new city wall was built in the troubled years around 1600; even a century later, this wall still protected the entire built-up space. By contrast, towns in coastal and therefore exposed regions of western and southern Anatolia were rarely protected by a full city wall. Whenever the situation became too dangerous, such settlements therefore contracted until in the case of emergency, the entire population could find refuge in the citadel (Stoianovich, 1970; Ergenç, 1980; Faroqhi, 1984, pp. 23ff).”

In the observations of European travel writers exists images defined by social prejudices which also effect these historical accounts as noted by Professor Faroqhi,

“On a more general level, the notions and prejudices about Turks and Middle Easterners that European travellers subscribed to have also influenced their judgments about Ottoman towns. In the sixteenth century at least, most visitors were highly impressed by the Sultans’ military power. To give but one example among many, Busbecq’s account is full of praise concerning such features as the lack of an entrenched aristocracy, the single-minded devotion of all military men to the ruler or the discipline and frugality of the janissaries (Busbecq, tr. Forster, 1968). But it seems that, possibly in order to avoid totally revising their mental map of the world, these European authors were unwilling to admit that Ottomans might be good at anything but warfare.”

She continues,

“Referring once again to the authors of late antiquity, European writers sometimes compared the Ottomans to the Germans or Huns who battered the Roman Empire during its final centuries. Pious commentators might add that the Ottomans were victorious because of the sins of the Christians in general, and more particularly the selfishness and disunity of Christian princes. Praise for non-military achievements in the Ottoman world on the part of contemporary European travellers is therefore rare, and usually hedged in the numerous ’yes, but’s. A whole set of definitions was worked out in order to not have to come to terms with Ottomans as artists, craftsmen, or musicians. We have already encountered the tendency to regard Ottoman buildings as Roman. A variant of this theme was the tendency to ascribe all the positive sides of Ottoman rule to the activities of converted Christians, a tendency which has not died out even in the late twentieth century.”

In conclusion, it should be noted that these prejudices are the ‘realities’ that todays historians are facing when presenting accounts of Ottoman history. And as Professor Faroqhi has stated, there is an intellectual “trap” in taking European travelers written accounts on the Ottomans Sultans, Ottoman towns and lifestyle at face value. Especially when producing images or imagery concerning the Ottomans. Muslims and people serious about history should be investigating the ‘objectivity’ of European travelers’ written sources on the Ottomans. In the end you will find much more satisfaction than the hollow feeling, as if you had just been had, when referencing some European travel writers.

Faoqhi, Suraiya. Approaching Ottoman History: An Introduction to the Sources. Cambridge University Press, 1999

In 1565 Yemen split into two provinces. One with Sa’dah as its capital and the other with Ta’izz. This split proved to have disasterous consequences for the Ottoman control as it created two rival authorities. Al-Mutahhar shrewdly exploited the new situation, and his forces attempted to drive out all of the Ottoman troops from the country. The newly appointed beglerbegi Hasan repulsed with difficulty a Zaydi attack against the important strategic center of Zabid. From there, the Ottomans in 1567 started to restore their control in Yemen. In 1569 massive regular Ottoman forces under Sinan Pasha arrived, and in the years 1569-70 Sinan Pasha completely restored Ottoman rule in Yemen and Aden. (H. Inalick)

Below you will find an article of Ottoman architecture existing in present day Yemen.

clipped from www.yobserver.com A Turkish expert who visited Yemen recently documented 71 Ottoman archaeological milestones in the secretariat of the capital, which together constitute a pattern architecturally unique in the old Islamic style adopted by the Ottomans to build forts and castles, water centers, baths and mosques[...] [...]Al-Theeb noted that the Turkish delegation had visited the state government building, which was built by Sultan Abdul-Hamid II in 1317 AH in the west of old Sana’a city, and the Ottoman parliament building to Yemen, and other Ottoman buildings deployed in the region.� There are remaining Ottoman buildings in Showb area, west Old Sana’a city. “they are eight buildings include Ozdemr Basha Mosque built by the Viceroy Ozdemr Basha in mid-tenth century and al-Roshedyiah school, the collage of administrators and accounting and senior staff[...]

Alright folks, its time for another meme. Muslims have been putting out a number of memes lately. This one is a book-meme coming from the Saha Blog.

The Rules:

The Meme: History of the Ottoman Turks – From the Beginning of Their Empire To the Present Time, by Sir Edward S. Creasy M.A. (1878)

“The old Sultan [Bayezit II], who was suffering under severe illness, joined the forces which some of his faithful followers had collected for his defense; but he wept bitterly on seeing the standards of Selim’s troop, and at the prospect of encountering his own child in battle. In this mood, he was easily persuaded to negotiate by the Beyler-bey of Roumelia, who strove to avert the unnatural conflict, and acted as mediator between father and son. Selim received the European government of Semendra; and the Sultan promised not to abdicate in favour of his brother Ahmed, who was known to be the old man’s favourite child.”

Little do people know or want to accept the fact that European history is heavily influenced by the Ottomans. In fact much of the aristocracy and diplomacy of Europe during the 14th and 15th century was cultivated by the Ottoman Sultans. Sultan Bayezit II was involved in an interesting quarrel or dispute with his brother Cem which ended with Cem being seized by Christian Soldiers called the Knights of St. John. Cem was utilizing these soldiers to reinforce his own military however, they betrayed him at the command the Sultan Bayezit II. Later Pope Innocent VIII attempted to persuade other European monarchs to form a Crusade to remove the Ottomans from Europe. This plan failed but Cem died in prison as a privileged captive in Rhodes.

Tagged Men: Abu Muhammad, Abdus Salaam, True Life; Women: Umm Layth and Sketched Soul

The Ottoman’s have long been the point of attack and criticism by various rivals and opposing states. These criticisms were often based on a religious platform subject to positions undermining the religious harmony that was established during Ottoman rule. However, despite these views it should be known that the character of the Ottoman Government is historically known to be of the highest grade of institutionalized statehood. This has been addressed a number of times but I would like to present an account given by Albert Howe Lyber, PhD, which was published by Cambridge/Harvard University Press in 1913. In this account Dr. Lyber writes of Ottoman character saying,

Some word references:

• Mohammedan
• Mohammedanisms

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In this age, an age where technological advances have given rise to the digital device as an “indispensable” part of our daily lives, we find that coupled with these works of wonder are new ways to abuse other human beings. One such form of abuse is criminal sex offense, where the internet is used as a means to lure and exploit children for sex in a less threatening way. By giving attractive stories about themselves these internet offenders coerce children into giving them detailed information about themselves and their family members.

A 2002 U.S. study found that in a nationally represented survey of over 1500 children ages 10 – 17, who regularly use the internet, 19% them reported being approached for sex through the internet at least once a year. And 1 in 7 of these children reported internet offenders following up the initial contact by telephone or mail. The study discovered that 24% of all solicitations for sex and 34% of all aggressive solicitations were made by adults aged 18 and older. The study also found that 25% of all aggressive solicitations were made by women. The chat-room phenomena was the highest ranking medium for sex offender’s solicitations comprising for two-thirds of all solicitations and 24% occured by Instant Messaging services such as AOL Online, Yahoo Messenger and other Instant Messaging services.

Recently in New Jersey, acting Govenor Richard Codey signed a bill (S1979) which will provide the state with near absolute authority to monitor or restrict internet access to convicted sex offenders.

In addition Information Week reports,

Acting Govenor Codey said in an official statement that the law will give New Jersey, ’some of the toughest tools in the nation to crack down on the growing threat of Internet predators.’

Generally, sex offenders convicted of serious sex crimes are usually sentenced to serve prison time. In 1992 National Corrections Reporting Program, the average prison sentence in state courts were 12.8 years for rape (5 years average times served) and 9.5 years for other kinds of sexual assault (2.5 years average time served). This data however is 15 years old and is based on sentences imposed over 20 years ago. I have been told that sentences for sex crimes have generally gotten longer since this data was first collected.

At any rate recidivism is less likely than drug offenders, perhaps due to the public trial, shame and humiliation of getting caught in an illicit act of sexual misconduct. But the fact remains that though the rate of recidivism is lower than that of other offenders, 18.5% is still enough to raise concerns on the reintroductions of sex offenders, Internet or otherwise, into the national community.

In Islam, sex crimes and sex offenders are placed in the upper echelon of punishment for crimes against fellow human beings. This act is taken very seriously, particularly if there is physical harm as a result of the act. Suad Joseph and Afsaneh Najmabadi mention this in their Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures,

They continue,

Rape is not discussed in the Qur’an, but there are hadith which mention rape specifically. For example, a hadith transmitted by Safiyya bint ‘Ubayd reported,

In this early case of documented and historically significant rape we see that there is an obvious distinction between willing and coerced zina. Which also creates a logical difference between the rapist and the victim. We also see that the punishment for rape was flogging, a punishment dealt with lashes, such as the penalty for soldiers who were convicted by martial courts during the American Revolutionary War (1775), and banishment.

But as Islamic Law developed, rape was not only considered a sex crime but also bodily harm and was subject to the payment of money called dirya, a penalty of payment for committing bodily harm or bloodshed, not unlike the blood-wites of Anglo-Saxon law before the Norman conquest (1066), except that payment was to the victim or the victims family and not the king. Islamic legal sources show that juridical writings of this earlier period often show evidence that a monetary payment for reparations in rape cases was made.

Rape in the context of zina is the highest offense of zina as explained by Joseph and Najmabadi,

But for a clearer picture on the overall progression of rape within Islamic law it should be instructive to consult the Ottomans and their legal edicts for sex offense and the subsequent rulings of punishment for convicted sex offenders,

In conclusion, from this article we find that in early Islamic history forced sex was considered rape. And that rape is a punishable offense. We see that Islamic law considers rape zina, a general sex crime, it distinguishes the rapist from the victim applying punishment to the rapist only. Interestingly, later in the development of Islamic law during early Ottoman period it was reasonably concluded at a time of increased abduction and sexual offenses, often performed together, that more severe punishment should be applied to discourage this kind behavior and curb the further increase of rape within the Ottoman Empire. I am raising this point because perhaps not unlike the events in Anatolia, the increase in internet offenses are enough reason to apply more severe punishment for this kind of crime.

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A person’s ethnic origins, heritage and culture are part of what make mankind distinct from the animal world. Mankind has been given the ability to develop complex and intelligent works of art; intellectual and scientific discoveries as well as spiritual achievements. However, each nation – meaning ethnic group – has gone about this in their own ways, ways that have grown out of geographical positioning, necessity and inspiration. It says in the Qur’an,

“O mankind! Lo! We have created you male and female, and have made you nations and tribes that ye may know one another. Lo! the noblest of you, in the sight of Allah, is the best in conduct. Lo! Allah is Knower, Aware.” (49:013)

Being of African origins and born in the United States is particularly challenging because of the country’s historical relationship to the African continent and particularly West Africa where my ethnic group, the Fula people or Fulani originate. Like the establishment of Islam in West and Central Africa, the Fulani heritage are coming by way of a physical, cultural and ideological marriage of Futa Djallon; Futa Tooro and Arab Muslims of the Umayyad Dynasty by invitation of the Monarch of Futa Djallon. This was during the time ‘Uqbah ibn Amir (RA), the Governor of Egypt, led a campaign to conquer Tripoli and eventually Italy, ordered by the Caliph of the Umayyad period, Hazreti Mu’awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan (RA).

It was after this marriage took place that the height of African Islamic Civilization took its shape. And in the center of this shape was the foundation of academics which functioned as a library and mainstay for all spiritual, intellectual and scientific discoveries in West and Central Africa. This center was located in the city of Timbuktu, Mali. Timbuktu was populated by several ethinic groups, the majority of those groups were the Fulani, Songhay, Tuareg and Mandé peoples. The city housed what is known as Sankoré University, which was built in 989 A.H./1581 C.E..

The university itself was built by erudite Islamic jurist of Timbuktu named, al-Qadi al-Aqib ibn Mahmud ibn Umar. This was partly accomplished with the financial assistance of a wealthy African woman who left a generous endowment funding the project, in the traditional way many women have assisted in supporting the Islamic Law guilds historically. Shaykh Mahmud Ka`ti described the process and dimensions used in building the university in his book Tarikh al-Fataash, saying,

“When he made the pilgrimage and prepared to take leave to return to Timbuktu, he took authorization from the attendants of the noble Kaaba to delineate the measurement of the Kaaba in length and breadth. They gave him permission and he measured it with a long cord measuring the length and breadth by marking these on the cord. He then brought this cord back to Timbuktu to serve as proportions. When he was ready to build the Sankore’ Mosque, he unrolled the cord and delineated the exact breadth he wanted to build by placing four pegs planted on the corners of the four directions. Thus, the inner court of the mosque had the exact dimensions of the Kaaba. It is not deficient of excessive to it in any way.” (qtd in M. Shareef, Sankore Institute)

This university was a symbol of the spirit of the society. Islam was at the center of this civilization which became a meeting point for traders and scholars from nearly every nation, Berber, Arab and Jewish traders, so by extension Europe as well.

The city was eventually destroyed by European explorers and slavers. There is a famous story of a 19th century French institution called the Société de Géographie which offered 10,000 francs to the first non-Muslim to reach the city and return with information about it. The prize was one by Frenchman René Caillié who disguised himself as Muslim in order to avoid the local Muslims fearful of European intervention. For most Americans, Timbuktu may seem like some fairytale story, especially taking into account fantasized descriptions European explorers, known as Orientalists, gave to anything Islamic during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. However, this legendary city’s history is a reality that has been on exhibition at the U.S. Library of Congress since 2005.

Today, the Timbuktu Manuscripts Project, is a scholarly effort to recover and preserve the manuscripts that were held in the once great city. There were several families which were the possessors and guardians of over 100,000 manuscripts some of which dated pre-Islamic 12th century. They are written in Arabic and Fulani and contain knowledge of subjects which range from astronomy to botanics, Islamic law, sciences and history. Some of which give detail descriptions on a number of African ethnic groups and their origins. The Ahmed Baba Institute founded in 1970 by the government of Mali is one such organization which has collected over 20,000 manuscripts for preservation.

I would like to close this post discussing the importance of heritage and history and how ignoring this further inhibits, both individually and collectively, from a real understanding of: who we are; where we are going and what we are capable of, in both positive and negative lights. I find that too many communities disconnect themselves from our historical selves. Some communities hope that somehow starting from, what the West considers, the pinnacle of human development, Modernism will bring a better world. Other communities feel disenfranchised from their ethnic and historical origins because of the malaise that developed during a tragedy or decline between then and now. The premise for both is that nothing valuable can be taken from the ancient, or nothing ancient is as valuable as what we have now. This position I cannot accept, the late vizier of Sokoto, Junayd ibn Muhammad al-Bukhari once said,

“Knowledge is universal and eternal but it has a social and cultural stamp. It also has a purpose and a commitment to a particular world view. It therefore cannot be neutral.” (M. Shareef, Sankore Institute)

Which implies to people of African origins that they are marked with the social and cultural stamp of the knowledge they are accepting, in fact it becomes a part of their identity. This is a very significant position that carries heavy implications. Junayd ibn Muhammad al-Bukhari also said in a poem,

“Whoever does not inform his children of his grandfathers Then has destroyed his child, marred his descendants, And injured his offspring the day he dies;
Whoever does not make use of his ancestry, Then he has muddled his reason;
Whoever is not concerned with his descent, Then he has lost his mind;
Whoever neglects his origin, Then his stupidity has become critical;
Whoever does not cause his ancestry to be abundant, Then his incompetence has become great;
Whoever is ignorant of his lineage, Then his intellect has dissipated;
Whoever does not increase his place of descent, Then he has abolished his honor.” (source)

Unfortunately, al-Bukhari’s poem sounds more like a vivid description of what was to come rather than a mere composition in verse. Perhaps the present day generations, you, me and our children can curtail this trending spiral of dishonor to the ancients and show the proper respect to those who were the harbingers of a lifestyle of tradition, knowledge and learning throughout the world and for Muslims a good place to start is the last legitimate Islamic Civilization, the Ottomans.

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Coffee is my favorite beverage. It is a widely consumed stimulant beverage which is prepared from the roasted seeds of the coffee plant. These seeds or “beans” as we call them today, were discovered in the highlands of Ethiopia. Coffee was first mentioned in literature by Muhammad Razi, a Persian physician and Islamic scholar. Coffee spread from Egypt to Yemen and by the 15th century it had reached Central Asia, Persia and North Africa. Coffee’s popularity grew in the Muslim World and spread to the West thereafter.

The coffee beans are put through a fermentation process before they can be roasted and prepared as a beverage. The coffee-beans are usually sold in its roasted form, however green coffee beans can be bought, roasted and ground at home. There are a number of different preparation methods which include: Americano, espresso, French press and Turkish coffee.

By the end of the 17th century coffeehouses, informal establishments offering a range of food-stuffs and beverages, particularly a variety of coffee, were becoming popular in France, Italy, Holland, England, Germany, the United States and many other countries.

One point we must make clear before moving forward, is that there can be no discussion of coffee or coffeehouses without discussing the Turks and the Ottomans. This is because coffeehouse culture developed out of the Ottoman lifestyle. Sources say that the first coffeehouse was established in 1554 under the authority of the Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman I, known in the West as Suleiman the Magnificent developed an elaborate reconstruction of the Ottoman judicial system. Sultan Suleiman I, was known worldwide to be a fair and just ruler, a man of the people and protector of the arts and sciences. This can be seen historically, as his rule oversaw the “Golden Age” of the Ottoman’s cultural development.

The first coffeehouse was owned by two people according to a historian named Ibrahim Peçevi Efendi wrote of this saying,

“Until the year 962 (1554-55), in the High, God-Guarded city of Constantinople, as well as in Ottoman lands generally, coffee and coffeehouses did not exist. About that year, a fellow called Hakam from Aleppo and a wag called Shams from Damascus, came to the city: they each opened a large shop in the district called Tahtalkala, and began to purvey coffee.”

The Tahtalkale district of Istanbul, which was home for the first coffeehouse, remains a lively center for trade and commerce even today. Early in coffeehouse-history they were merely kind of getaway for many of the locals both the educated and uneducated alike. The coffeehouse would provide an environment for reading or games like backgammon and chess, conversations on art and culture and of course the occasional disagreement.

Overtime the coffeehouse industry bloomed and soon it was a regular meeting place for everyone, from the unemployed to the high ranking officials; from the troublemakers to the imams and muezzins. Later, the coffeehouses became regular meeting places for troublesome activities and as a result Sultan Murat III banned coffeehouses, a ban which was lifted by subsequent sultans.

In Europe coffee was prohibited prior to the 17th century and there are reports of severe punishment for drinking coffee such as being sewn into a leather bag and tossed alive into the sea. However, Pope Clement VIII baptized coffee making it a “true Christian beverage”. In 1782 King Frederick II of Prussia, placed controls on the coffee industry. This was an attempt to uproot unlicensed coffee roasting, Frederick II commissioned wounded soldiers to be discharged and employed as “Coffee Smellers”. These “Coffee Smellers” worked as spies to “smell out” unlicensed coffee roasting operations during the coffee monopoly in Germany.

Today, coffee is everywhere and widely distributed. There are mega-coffeehouses like Starbucks, which one can find on nearly every Manhattan corner and there are smaller organizations with a pleasant environment such as the Sugar Hill Cafe on W. 145th St. between St. Nicholas and Edgecome in Harlem. Social excitement surrounds coffeehouses and coffee today is, perhaps, just as much a part intellectual and social interaction as it was during the time of Sultan Suleiman I.

One reason for this is the nature of coffee’s effect on the body. Coffee is a stimulant and caffeine is the most important chemical in coffee. It is an odorless and slightly bitter solid. Caffeine mostly affects the brain, kidneys, and the cardiovascular (heart and blood vessels) system, but it also increases metabolism and breathing. A five ounce serving of regular coffee contains about 90-125 milligrams of caffeine; whereas, an equal amount of tea only contains 30-70 milligrams of caffeine. A soft drink only has about 37 milligrams of caffeine per five ounces.

Coffee has several effects on the human body:

• it produces a feeling of well-being
• it can speed up a person’s thoughts
• it helps to increase circulation of the blood
• it can cause nervousness and loss of sleep when taken in large amounts
• it gives some people the ability to memorize simple numbers, concepts, and thought sequences easier

If you drink one or two cups several times a day, coffee will have little effect on the cardiovascular system. However, if you drink three to four cups several times a day, it will slow your pulse rate, raise blood pressure, contract blood vessels that are right under the skin, and dilate blood vessels of the kidneys, muscles, skin, and heart. Finally, caffeine makes the heart contract harder while it’s pumping. So please enjoy your coffee, but drink responsibly.

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